Regional Disparities in The Realm Of Education: The A.P. Scenario

K.Jayashankar (Former Vice-Chancellor, Kakatiya University)

Deep distrust among the people living in different regions of the state has all along characterised the first linguistic state of India, the State of Andhra Pradesh. This phenomenon is the inevitable consequence of the regional imbalances in the levels of development perpetrated during the last forty years and likely to be continued in the future as well. In such a situation, the people become a inxious more about the problems of bread and butter while the issues concerning linguistic unity and cultural affinity hardly matter.

The Telugu-speaking people living not only in the Telangana region but also in the Rayalaseema region always had doubts about getting a fair deal in the then proposed state called Vishalandra. The periodic recurrence of unrest and consequent efforts to pacify the people by foisting pacts, agreements, accords, formulae etc., bring this distrust to the fore. The Sri Bagh Pact of 1937 aimed at infusing confidence in the people of Rayalaseema was almost still born in its effect. The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956, which was an assurance of fair play given to the people of Telangana to facilitate the formation of Andhra Pradesh, was scuttled the very same day on which the state was born; ironically enough, by the very same 'Gentlemen' who were signatories to the agreement. The All Party Accord, the Eight Point Formula, the Five Point Formula-the supposed panacea expected to heal the wounds inflicted by the, massive Telangana agitation of 1969- never really worked. The Six Poin! t Formula, a counter prescription to meet the situation created by yet another upheaval in 1972 - the Andhra agitation-further eroded the confidence of the people of Telangana in the political leadership, irrespective of the party it belonged to and irrespective of the region it hailed from. All these exercises ultimately turned out to be futile as they were at best attempts to treat the symptoms rather than the malady. Distrust, therefore, continues to persist.

The objective of this paper is to present a comparative account of development achieved in one of the vital sectors i.e., education. The sources of data are the reports compiled, or published by the state government and other official agencies.

It is to be noted in this context that when the state of Andhra Pradesh was formed there were only two recognised regions in the state-Andhra and Telangana- since Rayalaseema was considered a part of Andhra. After the Andhra agitation of 1972 and the resultant imposition of Six Point Formula, the state was divided into seven zones treating the capital city as a separate entity. The rationale underlying this decision was to make the capital city equally accessible to the people living in all parts of the state. This has the appearance of fairness, but in reality it has deprived the people of Telangana of their legitimate right by a subtle play, which made the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad more accessible to the people of coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema, and more inaccessible to the people of Telangana. It is, therefore, necessary not to mistake the development of capital city with the development of Telangana region or any other region for that matter. In the pr! esent analysis the capital city is treated as a separate region, in conformity with the philosophy of Six Point Formula.

The Basic Factors

The main factors that generally form a basis for evolving strategies of development of a region are its geographical area and population, besides resource endowment and the levels of development already achieved. Geographically, Telangana is the largest region of the state covering 41.46 per cent of the total area. while the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema cover 33.57 per cent and 24.93 per cent, respectively. Telangana is inhabited by 39.22 per cent of state's population and the share of Coastal Andhra is 43.20 per cent and that of Rayalaseema 17.58. The development of Telangana region has therefore to be assessed keeping these basic factors in view.

Rate of Literacy

At the time of formation of Andhra Pradesh it was assured that disparities on the levels of development, including education, in different regions of the state would be removed in about five years. But even after forty years, the percentage of literate population in Telangana continues to be the lowest in the state i.e. 37.00 as compared to 46.22 in Coastal Andhra, 44.96 in Rayalaseema and 71.52 in the capital city. Districtwise details regarding the rates of literacy are given in Table 1.

Table I
Literacy Rate(%) Districtwise (A.P.)

SI.NO	District/Region	Literacy
	CoastalAndhra	46.22
1	Srikakulam	6.22
2.	Vizianagaram	44.19
3.	Visakhapatnam	45.51
4.	East Godavari	48.79
5	West Godavari	53.38
6.	Krishna	53.16
7.	Guntur	46.35
8.	Prakasam	40.30
9.	Nellore	47.76
	Rayalaseema	44.96
10.	Anantapur	42.18
11.	Chittoor	49.75
12.	Cuddapah	48.12
13.	Kurnool	39.97
	Telangana	37.00
14.	Adilabad	32.96
15.	Karimnagar	37.17
16.	Khammam	40.50
17.	Mahabubnagar	29.58
18.	Medak	32.41
19.	Nalgonda	38.00
20.	Nizamabad	34.18
21.	Rangareddy	49.07
22.	Warangal	39.30
23.	Hyderabad (Capital city)	71.52
	Andhra Pradesh	44.09

This has happened because of uneven distribution of educational facilities in different regions of the state. For clarity, a region-wise analysis is made, selectively, comprising-school education, universities, engineering and medical colleges. The facts are as follows:

School Education

The important point to be kept in mind, in this regard, is the percentage of population spread over different regions of the state (Coastal Andhra 43.20 per cent, Rayalaseema 17.58 per cent and Telangana 39.22 per cent) in order to assess the adequacy or otherwise of the facilities for education created vis-a-vis the size of the population and the levels of literacy achieved, in these regions. The data chosen for this analysis pertain to the year 1993 (the latest made available by the government) and the figures shown in the brackets are percentages.

During this period, there were a little over 70.31 lakh students in the state enrolled in the primary and upper primary schools run by the government, local bodies and private management's both aided and unaided. The regionwise break-up would be: Coastal Andhra 32.11 lakhs (45.67 per cent), Rayalaseema 13.86 lakhs (10.7 per cent), Telangana 22.53 lakhs (32.04 per cent) and capital city 1.81 lakhs (2.57 per cent). It should be realised that the unaided primary schools do not reflect the endeavour of the government, and if such institutions are not taken into account, the positions would be as follows: Coastal Andhra 31.11 lakhs (48.22 per cent), Rayalaseema 12.81 lakhs (I 9.85 per cent), Telangana 19.71 lakhs (30.55 per cent) and capital city 0.88 lakhs (1.36 per cent).

The position obtaining at the high school level is also more or less similar i.e., Coastal Andhra 47.00 per cent, Rayalaseema 18.30 per cent, Telangana 32.00 per-cent and capital city 2.70 per cent.

These figures are self-explanatory, evidently not commensurate with the size of the population of Telangana region and its backwardness. In all fairness, at least 40 per cent of the students enrolled at different levels of education should be from the Telangana region, but they never constituted more than 30 or 32 per cent of the total enrolment. This state of affairs is bound to further aggravate the problem of disparities in the years to come.

University Education

Regional disparities with regard to university education are more glaring. The three regions of the state have two universities each with their jurisdiction restricted to the regions concerned. The Osmania University, however, stands on a different footing because of its location and also for historical reasons. The imposition of Six Point Formula has, in fact, nullified its regional character.

In addition to the six universities with regional jurisdiction, there are six more universities having their jurisdiction over the entire state. None of these universities is located in the Telangana region. Of these six universities, the University of Health Sciences is located in the Coastal Andhra region (Vijayawada) and the Women's University in the Rayalaseema region (Tirupati), while all the other four universities, i.e., Agricultural University, Technological University, Open University and Telugu University are in the capital city. Further, the Agricultural and Technological Universities have their campuses and colleges in the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema regions as well, but no such facility exists in the Telangana region. It may be recalled that the Technological University was actually started at Warangal in the Telangana region, but was subsequently shifted to Hyderabad for inexplicable reasons. Similarly, the Open University was initially launched at Nagarj! unasagar in the Telangana Region, but was later started in the capital city, again for no valid reasons. There are two institutions of higher learning deemed to be universities, namely, the Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences and the S.V. Institute of Medical Sciences. The former is located in the capital city and the latter at Tirupati in the Rayalaseema region. In addition, a Sanskrit university funded by the Government of India and the Satya Sai Institute of Higher learning, a deemed university in private sector, also are located in the Rayalaseema region at Tirupati and Anantapur, respectively. It is further proposed to locate the University for Dravidian Languages at Kuppam in the Rayalaseema region.

There are two more institutions in the capital city which are fully funded by the University Grants Commission. They are: The Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages, a deemed university and the University of Hyderabad, established in the year 1975, as an offshoot of the Six Point Formula. The primary objective of starting this university was to augment the facilities of university education in the capital city so as to compensate, at least partially, the loss sustained by the youth of Telangana region under the Six Point Formula. But no one, neither in the government nor in the university, seems to remember this fact of history; and thereby, the very purpose of starting this university has been defeated. Today, the University of Hyderabad is as good - or as bad - as any other central university in the country in so far as giving preferential treatment to any particular region in matters of admission and recruitment of staff is concerned.

Regarding the appointment of vice-chancellors of six state-level universities and the directors of two deemed universities, besides other three functionaries of identical status, i.e., the chairman and vice-chairman of A.P. State Council of Higher Education and the chairman of A.P. College Service Commission, Telangana region has all along received a raw deal. Out of these eleven functionaries only one, at present, belongs to the Telangana region and all the other ten hail either from the Coastal Andhra or the Rayalaseema regions. While it is not a reflection on the persons who are now heading these institutions, it is certainly a cause of concern for the academics of Telangana region who are constantly ignored. Such a partisan approach, over the years, has adversely affected the interests of the region in matters of recruitment of staff to the teaching as well as non-teaching cadres. It is significant to note that the staff pattern of these universities is predominantly ! (more than 90 percent in quite a few cases) characterised by the Coastal Andhra and Rayalaseema personnel.

Engineering Education

The Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University which was originally started at Warangal and subsequently shifted to the capital city does not have even a single college located in the Telangana region. Even with regard to the starting of private engineering colleges, the Telangana region has been discriminated against. Out of a total of seventeen colleges in the private sector, only one college is in the entire Telangana region. The Regional Engineering College, however, is situated in Warangal; but its jurisdiction is not confined to the state of Andhra Pradesh alone, leave alone the Telangana region.

Medical Education

There are nine government medical colleges in the state, out of which four are in the Coastal Andhra region, two in the Rayalaseema region, two in the capital city and only one in the Telangana region. The three nursing colleges in the government sector are shared equally by Coastal Andhra, Rayalaseema and the capital city, with the Telangana region drawing a blank. Regarding the nursing schools attached to government hospitals, the position is more or less the same i.e., three are located in Coastal Andhra, two in Rayalaseema, two in the capital city and only one in Telangana.

Conclusion

Educational development affects, and in turn, gets affected by the pace of economic development. There is a bi-directional linkage, and in this process the low rates of literacy and economic backwardness sustain each other. This precisely is the problem of Telangana.

Internal Colonisation of Telangana: Selected Aspects

G.Innaiah (Social Activist)

Historical Background

The industrial revolution in Europe, while initiating a process of intensive economic growth, generated a simultaneous demand for cheap raw materials as well as a market for expensive manufactured goods. These, the developed nations (with the exception of Russia and Japan) sought in the resource-rich but technologically backward and densely populated 'developing countries'. To ensure the assured supply of raw materials and consumption of manufactured goods, it was imperative that they exert control which was possible through colonisation. The competitive demand soon took an exploitative colour, and each of the colonisers established their respective hegemony. The successful evolution of a new politico-economic structure of administration by Russia in the post World War I and China in the post-World War 11 period resulted in similar assertions for independence from the colonised regions. Their independence during the post-1950s, and the reluctance of ! the industrialised nations to relinquish their hold on these vast markets once again started a process of economic control with well-orchestrated economic, policies through the newly-evolved process of economic liberalisation. The neo-imperialists captured the global markets.

In India the anti-British stand taken by the 550 Princely States, strengthened its resolve to fight the colonial power for independence. During British rule, some of the states, under feudal administration ( Kashmir and the Deccan), resisted the transition to a united independent India even as the non-feudal states relented. The resistance in Deccan was soon forcibly quelled in what transpired as the Police Action on 13th September, 1948 under Nehru administration.

Even before the Police Action, the Telangana Armed Struggle /commenced in protest against the repressive feudal government of the Nizam in general and the atrocities of the Razakars in particular. The Armed Struggle was initiated by the badly marginalised Telangana peasants under the Congress and the Communist banners. The former's objective was principally for regional autonomy, while the latter combined it with class struggle. This struggle gained momentum and the nation-wide move to unite actually divided the movement into two opinions - a group that wanted to join this move and another that resisted. Under Nehru's administration, the government through suppressive and coercive action, quelled the movement until finally it withdrew. In the 1952 general elections the Congress won and B. Ramakrishna Rao was made the Chief Minister of the newly established Hyderabad State.

Meanwhile, the proposal for the formation of the States on linguistic basis was put forth and implemented. In spite of the reluctance of the Telangana people, the State of Andhra Pradesh was formed on 1st November 1956.

It may be noted here that while extra-national forces had initiated colonisation, intra-national forces had collaborated and drafted strategies of exploiting weaker regions and people. Telangana is home to a wide variety of abundant resources - extensive forests , perennial water sources for sustained irrigation and agriculture, ample coal for power development and distribution, and cheap labour. Tendu leaves are available in very large quantities for beedi-making. These factors, congenial for intensive development, failed to usher in the process of development in Telangana. The region remained underdeveloped with most of the resources under the feudal system of administration that curtailed non-elite participation, while the post -A.P. formation period policies only exacerbated the trends. This is high-lighted in the following contours of development.

Industries in Telangana

The Azamjahi Mills in Warangal, Antargami spinning mills in Karimnagar, Allwyn in Hyderabad, Nizam Sugar Factory in Nizamabad, Singareni Collieries across Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal and Khammam, testify to the type of industrialisation that existed. These industries were declared as Public Sector Units and initiatives to develop them were curbed. A case was built to the effect that they became dysfunctional so that this would facilitate their closure. It was propagated that the units were incurring losses , which weighed heavily on the government . It may be noted that during this period, a simultaneous effort to develop industry in coastal Andhra was relentlessly undertaken. Industries declared as futile and loss-incurring in Telangana were established. In fact the funds that ought to have been directed to initiate growth in Telangana, were siphoned off to other regions for developing similar industries discouraged in Telangana. The Hindupur spinning mills and watch ! company, the Nandyal sugar factory, the Guntur and Eluru spinning mills, were extended not adequate, but excessive incentives. Of all, only Singareni Collieries' development is being sustained. This too merely because of its indispensability since it supports non-Telangana industries, and because it has strong resistance from the mining workers' union. It is reported that even the profits made in the Telangana industries were transferred outside Telangana. The benefits due to backward region development in terms of subsidies have been siphoned by them. In the name of industries thousands of acres were lost to the non-Telangana people.

The Ramagundam and Kothagudem power plants supplied all the necessary power to meet the entire industrial and agricultural requirement of the State. Of the total power production in the State, 45 % is generated there. Although 20 % is observed to be derived from Vijayawada thermal power station, the raw material - coal is supplied from the Telangana coal belt. Thus, while, 65 - 70 % of the power generated is from the resources in Telangana, its consumption is just 20 % (of this the migrants / settlers share a large chunk ). The entire coal from Singareni was utilised by the Ramagundam station, but now with Vijayawada staking a claim, Ramagundam's share began to decline. The transport of power is much more economical than the transport of raw material . However, in defiance of the economies of scale and factors of industrial location, the Government persists in its intent, and is unwillingness to ensure greater equity in development.

Central Government Industries

After 1947, the Government of India undertook an extensive industrialisation programme all over the country. The establishment of BHEL, ECIL, IDPL, IDL, HMT, etc., form part of this agenda. However, in defiance of the Gentlemen's Agreement, these industries recruited 90 per cent employees from non-Telangana regions. Of the remaining 10 per cent, the employees were predominantly in the lower order occupational categories like sweepers, watchmen, security guards and they belonged to Telangana. It may be mentioned here that the Central Government initiatives, instead of ensuring equitable growth and fair development, exacerbated the inequalities. The ancillary industries that developed in and around these major industrial units, exclusively belonged to the settlers and employed migrants. Unwritten rules included co-opting the few educated Telangana administrators and rejecting deserving Telangana applicants . The industrialists continued to exploit Telangana's land, water, p! ower, labour, and repaid it by exacerbating of poverty and pollution.

Private Industries

The private industries, predominantly media, pharmaceuticals, cement, granite, food processing, poultry , dairy, steel , fertiliser, education, established in the districts around Hyderabad, have displaced existing agricultural lands, polluting air, land and water with emissions and effluents, creating health hazards for the local residents. They also displaced the traditional industries, which had been a part of Telangana life, rendering them dependent and destitute. The introduction of irrigation had a similar impact of displacement of the local population and rendering them landless.

Land - Ownership Changes and Impact

Industrial growth by, for Coastal Andhra people in Telangana also affected land-use patterns. Lands, both private and government, were allocated for industrial use and housing colonies. Some of these are given in Table l. All of these are owned by non-Telangana people, with non-Telangana employees, Thus while the resources are essentially Telangana's, the benefits of development are channelled to non-Telangana people. In fact, the Telangana people are subjected to all the negative impacts of the massive industrialisation that took place within Telangana. It is observed in various research reports that the 182 industries emit almost 34,000 tonnes effluents per annum, mostly flowing into the river Musi. The Jeedimetla industrial area alone produces 5.50 crore litres effluents besides 1.5 crore chemical discharge ( Zinc, cadmium, nickel, chromium ). They have proved hazardous to the health of the local population, and in many instances even fatal ( reports of premature ! deliveries, still-born and high infant mortality rates are many).

Table 1

1. Ramoji Rao - Film City	2812 acres
2. Sangbi Industries	2842
3. MRF	500
4. Heritage Foods	40
5. Vijay Electricals	15 0
6.GPR Housing	5600
7. East City	3000
8. Satyam Enclave	2600
9. Choutuppal Housing	2000
10. Kukatpalli Housing Board	1850
11. BHEL Housing	2500
12. Ordnance Factory	1500
13. Public Lands	5384

Source: Survey data

During the last couple of years, with the development of the industries in Coastal Andhra, after linking the industries that are projected to have been incurring losses in Vijayawada ( A.P. Heavy Machinery Ltd.) with the industries in Telangana ( Singareni Collieries Ltd.) large amounts of finances were diverted to sustain them (during 1992 - 1993 annual Rs. 25 crores were diverted to their maintenance). With the linkage of the profits and losses of these industries to Singareni, they are shown in Singareni's audit, and manipulation of statistics now project Singareni as loss-incurring and APHML as profit making and thus to be sustained. At the same time, in Telangana, the Republic Forge Company, Allwyn, Nizam Sugar Factory, etc., are being closed on grounds of economic non-feasibility. Such actions can only reinforce the development differences and increase the growth disparities between Telangana and non-Telangana areas.

Employment

Development abnormalities exacerbating polarisation effects through concentration of development inputs are also evident in the employment structure that evolved during the post 1960s. The Government's explicit policies testify to its partisan attitude. An examination of the employment structure of the nationalised banks, the educational institutions, transport sector and industry throw light on this.

The region-wise distribution of employment in the nationalised banks ( Table 2) of Andhra Pradesh highlight the overwhelming concentration of the employees hailing from Coastal Andhra ( 70 per cent ). The proportions recruited from Telangana , Rayalaseema and non-Andhra Pradesh areas are almost the same. It may be noted that the 11 per cent share of Telangana also includes the second generation settlers in Hyderabad, thus actually displaying a more grim position of Telangana.

Table 2
Employment in Nationalised Banks in Andhra Pradesh - 1996 -1997

Regions	Employment	Total Percentage
I.Coastal Andhra	42,000	70
2.Rayalaseema	5,000	9
3. Telangana	7,000	11*
4. Non-A.P.	6,000	10
Total	60,000	100

*includes second generation settlers. Source : Survey Data

In the Ambedkar Open University, the recruitment pattern is found to be on similar lines. Academic, administrative and technical posts are skewed in favour of Coastal Andhra. Telangana's shares are 40, 39 and 12 per cent respectively. A greater proportion of them are again settlers. Recruitment in the technical category is particularly inclined toward Coastal Andhra candidates. This pattern is attributed to 'non-availability of eligible candidates from Telangana', which is a pretext, since such sectors as transport, which does not really require 'eligibility' in that sense of elimination, also subscribes to such trends. Of the 25,000 employees, 65 per cent are from Coastal Andhra, 15 per cent from Rayalaseema and merely 20 per cent from Telangana.

Table 3
Employment in Ambedkar Open University. Hyderabad, 1996 -1997

Employment	Coastal Andhra	Rayalaseema	Telangana	Total
1. Teaching	23	4	18	45
2.Administrative	15	4	12	31
3. Technical	21	-	3	24
Total	59	8	33	100

Source Fieldwork, 1997

Table - 4
Employment structure in APSRTC - 1997

Regions	No. of Employees	%
Coastal Andhra	16250	65
Rayalaseema	3750	15
Telangana	5000	20
Total	25000	100

Source: Fieldwork, APSRTC, 1997

The position in four industries which were studied in depth shows a similar picture. The N.R.B. Bearings Ltd. in Uppal has recruited all the three executives from non-Telangana areas, while of the 70 other staff, only 12 are from Telangana. In the -lower order employment, i.e. casual workers, 38 are locals and 12 are non- locals. Amongst the trainees, all the 15 are non-locals. which reiterates the objective of imparting training to non-locals and projecting them as the only trained candidates later on. Ashok Leyland, a Hinduja Group, has all the four executives from outside. Of the other 197 staff members, a minuscule 39, are from Telangana. -There is found to be a concentration of local workers in the lowest order of workers, with 450 from Telangana, while 150 are from non-Telangana regions. Almost 200 casual workers are also employed by them, where Telangana employees constitute 130 or 65 per cent. Parke Davis displays a more pitiable picture, with the local population! recruited in only lowest order workers category. There too, locals constitute less than 45 per cent.

Table 5
Parke Davis - Employment Structure (1996 - 1997)

Category of Employment	Non-Local	Local	Total
1. Executive Directors	1	-	1
2. Director General	1	1	2
3. General Manager	1	-	1
4. R & D	1	-	1
5.Managers	2	-	2
6.Senior Staff	10	-	10
7. Other Staff	16	-	16
8.Workers	170	150	320
9. Security Officers	3	-	3
10.Security Guards	22	-	22
11. Casual Workers	-	150	150
12. Trainees	500	-	500

Source: Field Work

Conclusion

These developments are similar to the exploitative nature of capitalism characteristic of colonial system of governance. They exploit local resources - human and non-human, displace local people, exported local resources- coal, cement, granite (even milk is purchased from the local farmers and sold at a premium with labels establishing ownership rights.). The required infrastructure, power, communications, to their industry, and agriculture (including forest raw materials and water) are oriented to their growth and development. The industrial development benefits the non-locals whether it is the white or blue collar jobs, or even menial work. The industrial produce too benefited the non-Telangana people. The traditional industrial structure collapsed under the impact of modern industry. The impact on culture, unquantifiable, is immense and evident in the transition from a biryani culture to that of idly-dosa. There has been a massive erosion of local customs and tradition! s and the way of life under the overwhelming onslaught of the multi-faceted migrant culture. The only two predominant religious functions - 'Pochamma panduga' and 'Jammi for Dasara', besides the 'Peerlu' is widely dominated by Rakhis, Ganesh Utsavs, Varalakshmi Vratam, Santoshi Mata pooja etc. What have developed are islands of prosperity in expansive areas of poverty and underdevelopment.

Telangana Employees And Job Opportunities: Dimensions of Discrimination

K.R. Amos (Former President of Telangana NGO's Union)

The formation of Andhra Pradesh in 1956 has brought in innumerable problems for those in service, who by virtue of being Telugus opted to stay in Andhra Pradesh, while those Kannadigas and Maharastraians opted to go to their respective States. The service conditions as obtained in Hyderabad State were protected under Section 115 of States Reorganisation Act of 1956 and Government of India was to settle the disputes arising out of integration of service cadres. There were distinct and specific service rules for Telangana and Andhra State. Taking advantage of political domination, administrative majority, the merger of services was manipulated to benefit the Andhra employees right from 1956. The first attack was on the salaries. The Andhra employees were working with lower pay scales, while the Telangana employees were better paid (about 20 to 30% higher pay scales). In 1958 and subsequently whenever there was upward revision in pay scales, the administration worked out th! e scales in such a way as to help the Andhras. In common institutions Secretariat, Heads of Departments, Judiciary, Engineering, PWD, Medical Doctors and many other Departments in the name of integrated seniority the rules were framed in such a manner as to give advantage to the Andhras, thereby, all the promotions were cornered by Andhras though the Telangana staff were equally qualified and otherwise suitable. Appeals to Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs could not yield positive results forcing the employees to go to High Court and Supreme Court. Even the judgements of the courts were not implemented forcing the Telangana employees to retire after attaining superannuation. Hyderabad State, with vast Urdu knowing employees was merged in Andhra Pradesh. After 1956, the official language did not include Urdu and hence the Urdu qualified employees were confined to ordinary duties and their very survival was threatened. Thousands of Urdu qualified empl! oyees were either retrenched with abolition of posts or they were not considered for promotion to higher posts. Language tests and new departmental tests were introduced to deny promotion to Telangana staff. In some departments, integrated senioritis were prepared in such a manner, in the name of higher qualifications of the Andhras that a new rule to effect promotion on the basis ATA (Andhra Telangana Andhra) in every three promotion vacancies. Summing up, it was found from 1956 to 1968, that the Telangana employees were forced be placed at a disadvantage in promotions and creation of new posts. By introducing new rules and conditions for all the posts created after 1956, Telangana employees were deprived of opportunities. Even after 30 years, those who got favourable judgements from Supreme Court in Engineering and Irrigation Departments have been waiting to get justice. Almost all those in service in 1956 with 5 to 10 years of fast service have retired. Another method adopted by Andhra rulers was to create large number of Boards and corpor! ations after 1956 and the recruitment rules were framed to deny opportunities to Telangana people. In filling up posts on deputation basis, again Andhras were preferred.

Job Opportunities

Before 1956, all jobs in Hyderabad State were filled with Mulkies with 15 years residence or birth in Hyderabad State. After 1956, with the formation of State of Andhra Pradesh, thousands of jobs meant for Telangana youth were given to Andhras. The methods adopted differed from office to office, district to district. While no Telangana youth was appointed in Andhra districts, thousands of jobs in Telangana were filled by Andhras, some of them obtaining bogus mulki certificates. By 1969, it was estimated that over 22,000 posts were filled by Andhras with bogus certificates. In the name of rationalisation of Departments, large number of engineers, doctors, gazetted officers from Andhra region were dumped in Telangana districts. They in turn brought their own Andhra staff for lower posts, even for class IV posts. In the Secretariat and Heads of Departments out of 50,000 posts, the Andhra employees were transferred and posted so that the vacancy caused in Andhra district,! were available to unemployed from Andhra. Nearly 30 per cent of these posts were filled up by Andhras while the officials from Telangana Districts were not entertained.

Regional Committee

The service conditions, employment and transfer and sale of agricultural lands were to be regulated and overseen by the Telangana Regional Committee consisting of all the legislators of the region. The Governor was supposed to regulate the recommendation as watchdog for safeguarding the interests of the Telangana region under S.R. Act and authority of Parliament. But the recommendations of the Regional Committee were either not cared for or the subjects were never brought to attention nor serious note was taken. This is due to the fact that though legislators from Telangana were members of the TRC the political authorities and overlordship remained with the Andhra CMs and majority MLA/MPs from Andhra region. The Telangana employees could neither get protection under provisions or S.R. Act 1956, Telangana regional committee, State Government or the Government of India, Home Ministry. A spate of court judgements were never implemented in favour of Telangana employees. ! All the State Government committees and Departments held meetings for formality sake but not with an intention to do justice to Telangana.

The main loss to Telangana region was due to the fact that majority of the officers and lower staff in all decision making positions were Andhras and thereby, the schemes, projects, allocation and release of funds for Telangana region suffered and those Telangana officers who were scattered could not protect the interests of the region. If this was the position in 1969, it can well be imagined how far the interests of the region can be safeguarded now in 1997.

Agitation in 1969

The Telangana N G O's spearheaded the Telangana movement along with students. The job reservations under Mulki rules were available not only in State Secretariat, Heads of Departments, Subordinate Offices, nine districts of Telangana but also in A P State Electricity Board, AP State Road Transport Corporation, and all other Boards and Corporations in Telangana region including educational institutions, universities and teacher posts.

All-Party Agreement of 1969

In order to ensure the proper implementation of the safeguards, the following decisions have been taken at meeting of the leaders of all the political parties of the Legislature convened for the purpose by the Chief Minister. All non-domicile persons who have been appointed either directly or by promotion or transfer to the posts reserved for domiciles of Telangana region will be immediately relieved from service. The posts so rendered vacant will be filled by qualified candidates possessing domicile qualifications and in cases where such candidates are not available, the posts shall be left unfilled till qualified domicile candidates become available. Action on the above lines will be taken immediately.

The Government however felt that the statutory bodies are State wide organisations, reservation of posts for Telangana candidates should also be made in them as in the case of the posts under the Government.

In, all cases where the Government of India has approved common graduation lists of Andhra & Telangana officers or issued any directive for preparation or revision of such lists, the lists so approved or prepared shall alone be followed for regulation of conditions of their services.

The Telangana surpluses will be determined on the following basis

1. The existing method of allocation of expenditure and receipts to either region will continue.
2. The Telangana surplus for each year will be computed by adding to the net revenue surplus of the Telangana region of that year.
3. So far as statutory or other boards and corporations functioning State wide financed by the State Government, for the purpose of computing Telangana surpluses, they were to be treated as if they were State wide Government departments and as if their receipts and expenditure were booked in Government accounts. In the case of A P State Electricity Board, expenditure on power generation and high tension transmission lines only will be apportioned between the two regions in the manner indicated above. Expenditure on distribution lines and rural electrification will be booked to each region as per actual position.
4. The Industrial Trust Fund which is being operated exclusively for the Telangana region will continue to be utilised. ( Later all industrial development was taken up by other agencies for benefiting the non- Telangana industrialists even in the matter of ancillary units in the region).

The Telangana surpluses so determined will be fully utilised for development of the Telangana region during the next five years (1973-78) (Signatories to the all party accord include leaders from Congress, CPI, CPM, SP, BJP, Majlis, Swatantra and Indian legislators.)

Eight-point Programme of 1969

On 11-4-1969 the Prime Minister, late Indira Gandhi made a statement in Lok Sabha announcing Eight point programme for Telangana development, education, employment and plan implementation committee besides high-power development committee. One of the points which is relevant here is (VI) the possibility, of providing for appropriate Constitutional safeguards in the matter of public employment in favour of people belonging to the Telangana region will be examined by the Government of India in consultation with a committee of Jurists - as was the case with all other formulas, this also was not implemented.

For over one and a half years, the TNGO's organised educational meetings on the non- implementation of safeguards. But when all attempts failed, the NGO's had to declare that their problems can be solved only in separate Telangana state. During this period, a meeting of all political parties was held on 19-1-1969 and following decisions were taken.

Prime Minister's Five-point Formula - 1972

The residential qualification in the Mulki Rules will apply only for.the purposes of recruitment to non - gazetted posts and post of Tahsildar and Civil Assistant Surgeons in the Telangana region. It will also apply to such posts as were non-gazetted on 1-1 1-1956 but have since been made gazetted. However, in the case of composite offices such as Secretariat, the offices of Heads of Departments and common institutions of the State Government these rules will apply for the purposes of filling the second vacancy in every unit or three direct recruitment vacancies in non-gazetted posts.

In order to provide adequate avenues of promotion to the Government servants working in each of the two regions, various service cadres will be regionalized upto the first or second gazetted level.

Educational facilities including those in technical and professional fields which are available at present to Telangana students in the cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad will not be adversely affected. In these cities the facilities will be suitably expanded.

The Six-point Formula - 1973

After P V Narasimha Rao was made the Chief Minister, the Andhra agitation was started against the judgement of Supreme Court on Mulki Rules favouring Telangana people. The progressive legislation on land reforms, sharing of power with the backward classes, dalits and minorities were some of the important causes for the Andhra leaders to launch agitation. At one stage, Andhra leaders Re Sri B V Subba Reddy, Kakani Venkatratnam and Tenneti Viswanadhain demanded for separate Andhra to solve the problems once for all. The Andhra agitation had brought to surface an air of dominance and superiority of Andhra leadership. The Telangana leaders were forced to agree for watering down all the demands on development, backwardness, employment, education, irrigation, agricultural development and power production. At last there was an agreement for almost unconditional integration.

With total surrender to the dictates of the then Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi brought out six-point formula to benefit Andhras alone with an announcement in Lok Sabha on September 20, 1973.

The net result is as follows:

1. Educational backwardness in Telangana area is not tackled - no new Universities. Medical, Engineering and higher educational centres were envisaged, no degree colleges, high school, primary any other training colleges, B.Ed. nursing, ITI's TTI'S or others were started.
2. The jobs in the State Government for new recruitment were confined to non-gazetted in the Telangana regions with 4 years residence as local candidates. This made all non - Telangana people who immigrated to the region eligible for jobs. The jobs in the Secretariat and Heads of Department, police, common institutions judiciary were kept oven for all.
3. All the jobs in APSRTC, State Electricity Board, corporations and boards were thrown open depriving opportunities of Telangana people.
4. By excluding gazetted posts from the purview, large scale transfers were allowed.
5. Singareni Collieries, major industries in Ramagundam, Medak, RangaReddy district, Khammam and Nalgonda were opened for all forcing lakhs of Telangana youth out of jobs.
6. By giving 20percent reservation even in the zonal cadres for non- locals, Telangana people were deprived of jobs, while the 20 per cent of the non- local posts in the Andhra region were filled by the Andhras themselves.
7. By adopting common entrance and reservation of seats for non-locals in Andhra universities no Telangana student benefited while Andhra students who are already residents of Hyderabad and are eligible took a majority of these seats again depriving the Telangana youth.
8. The opening of Hyderabad University helped the Andbras. All other Universities set up as state wide institutions, and set up in Andhra region only help Andhra students to get admission and employment.
9. Regional Development Boards were abolished by N T Rama Rao in 1983 itself. There by Telangana region has suffered in planning and implementing the developmental schemes.

Job Opportunities in the State

After 1973, with six-point formula replacing Mulki Rules zonal recruitment and appointment was on the basis of four years stay in Telangana. It placed that the Telangana youth in disadvantageous position compared to Andhra youth. All the Andhra officials, working in Hyderabad city both in-State and central Governments private and public sector companies corporations and Boards, and educational institutions, have attained the right to get educational benefit in schools and colleges as well as in local jobs on par with Telangana youth. Thus, lakhs of Telangana youth have been deprived of educational and job opportunities in Hyderabad city and in industrial belt. The rural Telangana youth have to compete for the few jobs in the State Government offices while the Andhra rural youth have more opportunities. The job reservations and the availability of posts in both Hyderabad city and Andhra districts are more than in the Telangana districts. The following table gives the glari! ng disadvantaged position for Telangana youth.

Employment in State Government Sector as on 30-6-1983

Region	Gazetted	N G O's	Class IV	Contingency	Total
Andhra Districts	15,278	2,23,256	1,10,058	21,672	3,33,900
Telangana	7,717	1,09,427	27,146	13,801	1,68,327
Hyderabad City	5,149	44,703	22,448	1,168	74,038

It is inferred from the table that job opportunities for Telangana youth are glaringly low. In the name of six point formula large number of people from Andhra have grabbed the posts of Telangana in gazetted and non-gazetted levels in State Government services.

Factory Jobs In Telangana

Most of the factory jobs are enjoyed by Andhras as the factory owners have come from other areas. Andhras have benefited by using the land, subsidy, bank loans, raw material, power and water from Telangana. The factories in Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Ranga Reddy, Medak and Karimnagar are glaring examples of depriving Telangana youth from their job opportunities. Transport companies and tours and travels, finance companies, film industries, and film studios get people from other regions. In chit fund business, crores are collected from Telangana but opportunities are mostly given to Andhras. All the real estate companies have been started by Andhras.

It was reported that in Ranga Reddy district out of 1.60 lakhs of factory and other workers are non-locals while the unemployed in Ranga Reddy district exchanges are over 1.8 lakhs.

Daily Wages Workers in various Factories - 1996 - Wages (Average)

Region	Number	Percentage
Coastal Andhra	3,16,321	67.7
Rayalaseema	69,1675	14.9
Telangana	81,095	17.4

The above table indicates the disadvantaged position of Telangana rural people.

The construction material like bricks and sand are brought from nearby districts of Ranga Reddy, Medak, Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Warangal and Karimnagar. After taking land for 10 to 15 years lease, by digging 10 ft deep pits bricks in lakhs are made. Thousands of acres of land is becoming unsuitable for cultivation and becoming wasteland. The agricultural labourers who have been dependent on farming activities have lost their livelihood. Thousands of lorries of sand are brought from all over thereby creating environmental problems and drying up of groundwater sources besides water tanks and nallas getting dried up.

Central Government Undertakings

It is a known fact that in all the central undertakings, factories, NTPC, Railways, P&T, Telecommunications, civil aviation etc., the job opportunities are not really available to Telangana youth as the Andhra youth with means and influence are able to get more jobs in Telangana Districts and in Hyderabad city. The job opportunities in Andhra areas like ports, industries in Vizag and Kakinada are mostly available for the Andhra youth.

With new policy of liberalisation and privatisation of industry and infrastructure too the Telangana youth will not be able to get their due share as they are not placed in an advantageous position.

In view of the fact that the Telangana region as such is deprived of its development and the people are made to suffer due to neglect by political systems it has to be examined as to how the region can develop and compete with the other region with all the attendant difficulties and still ensure progress. While the State Government gets large loans for Coastal Andhra development (Rs. 19,000 crores raised as loan) the interest and instalments have to be paid equally by people of Telangana region and is not possible to raise funds exclusively for completing ongoing or new projects in Telangana. It is estimated that Rs.20,000 crores are required to provide for irrigation of 35 lakh acres under the Pochampad project and 10,000 crores for power generation for lift irrigation schemes. If the requirement of investment for one project is so massive, how can the overall development be possible in the near future? The big brother who has joined us to develop equally with joint effo! rts only helped themselves depriving the younger brother of legitimate rights. The solution should be to allow the younger brother to stand on his own and progress.

Conclusion

It is pertinent to conclude that the Telangana people and their development in any field is not possible as the Visalandhra experiments have failed from 1956 onwards.

The fact remains

1. The Gentlemen's Agreement of 1956 between Andhra and Telangana leaders providing safeguards was not implemented.
2. The safeguards provided under the States Reorganisation Act of 1956 and the protections given under section 115(c) of S R Act were not safeguarded both by the A.P State Government and the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
3. The High Court and Supreme Court judgements were mostly not implemented when they were in favour of Telangana services.
4. The protections available through Telangana Regional committee ( TRC )with regard to scheduled matters are : Local self government, public health and sanitation, local hospitals dispensaries, primary and secondary education, regulation of admissions to the educational institutions, sale of agricultural lands, cottage and small scale industries, agriculture, co-operative societies, markets and fairs and development and economic planning and all Bills to be presented to the Legislature. By abolishing this institution, Telangana region suffered. Even if it were to be continued, it would not have come in the way of Andhra region in any manner.
5. The All Party Agreement of 1969 reached by representatives of all political parties assuring measures far Telangana region could not be implemented nor any machinery created for the same.
6. The Late Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi announced eight point program in Lok Sabha on 11 April 1969 and five Point Plan on November 27 1972.The fate of these measures received the same treatment as the other similar measures.
7. The six-point formula was presented to.Parliament on 20 September 1973, further reducing the protections and safeguards the people of Telangana and mostly benefiting the Andhra interests.

All the agreements, accords, formulas, plans and assurances on the floor of legislature and Lok Sabha could not be honoured and Telangana was forced to remain neglected, exploited and backward. The experiment to remain as one State proved to be a futile exercise and therefore, separation is found to be the best solution.